Anglo-Saxons, Vikings and the Norman Conquest

The Angles

The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that invaded Britain from northern Europe after the Roman army left in AD 410. The Roman army left Britain in AD 410 to defend other parts of the Roman Empire and never returned, and Britain was again invaded by tribes from northern Europe: the Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons. By around AD 600, these peoples had established kingdoms across what is now England, and the Angles settled mainly in the east and north, forming the kingdoms later known as East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. Their name has left a lasting mark on the country: England takes its name from the Angles, and the languages the invading tribes spoke became the basis of modern English. The languages they spoke are the basis of modern-day English, and by about AD 600, Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were established in Britain, mainly in what is now England.

The Saxons

The Saxons were the second of the three Germanic peoples who crossed into Britain in this period, alongside the Angles and the Jutes. They arrived after the Roman army left Britain in AD 410, as part of the wider invasion by tribes from northern Europe: the Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons. Their settlements gave rise to the kingdoms of Essex, Sussex and Wessex, meaning the lands of the East, South and West Saxons respectively, in the south of England. Together with the Angles, the Saxons gave their combined name to the Anglo-Saxons, the people who ruled most of what is now England until 1066. One of the most significant Anglo-Saxon kings was Alfred the Great, who united the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and defeated the Vikings. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England united under King Alfred the Great, who defeated the Vikings. Anglo-Saxon rule continued, with a brief interruption by Danish kings such as Cnut, right up until the Norman Conquest of 1066. Anglo-Saxon kings continued to rule what is now England, except for a short period when there were Danish kings, the first of these was Cnut, also called Canute.

The Jutes

The Jutes were the third Germanic tribe named among the invaders of Britain in this period, alongside the Angles and the Saxons. They arrived after the Roman army left Britain in AD 410, as part of the invasion by tribes from northern Europe: the Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons. The Jutes settled mainly in the south-east of England, in the area that became the kingdom of Kent and on the Isle of Wight.

The rise of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms

The Roman army left Britain in AD 410, called back to defend other parts of the Roman Empire, and never returned. Britain was then invaded by tribes from northern Europe: the Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons. There was fighting against these newcomers, but by about AD 600 they had established a set of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, mainly in what is now England. Much of the west, including most of Wales, and Scotland, stayed free of Anglo-Saxon rule.

One of these kingdoms buried a king at Sutton Hoo, in modern Suffolk, placing him in a ship with treasure and armour before covering the whole burial with a mound of earth. This find remains a key piece of evidence for how wealthy and organised early Anglo-Saxon society could be.

The Anglo-Saxons arrived as pagans, but missionaries gradually converted them to Christianity. Missionaries from Ireland, including St Patrick and St Columba, spread the faith in the north; Columba founded a monastery on Iona, off the Scottish coast. St Augustine led a separate mission from Rome that took Christianity into the south, and he became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.

Settlement, Vikings and the making of England and Scotland

Anglo-Saxon kings ruled what is now England for several centuries, apart from a brief spell of Danish kings, the first of whom was Cnut, also called Canute. That interruption came about because of the Vikings.

The Vikings, who came from Denmark and Norway, first raided Britain in AD 789, attacking coastal towns for goods and slaves. Over time they stopped merely raiding and began to settle, forming their own communities in the east of England and in Scotland. King Alfred the Great united the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England and defeated the Vikings, checking their advance. Many Viking settlers nonetheless remained, especially in an area of eastern and northern England known as the Danelaw; place names such as Grimsby and Scunthorpe still show this Viking legacy today.

In the north, the threat of Viking attack pushed people to unite under a single king, Kenneth MacAlpin, and it was from this period that the name Scotland began to be used for that country.

The Anglo-Saxon roots of English

The languages spoken by the Jutes, Angles and Saxons form the basis of modern English. This Anglo-Saxon foundation was later reshaped after the Norman Conquest of 1066, when Norman French, the language of the new ruling class, influenced the English language as it developed into the form recognisable today.

How Christianity returned to Anglo-Saxon Britain

The Anglo-Saxons who settled in Britain after the Romans left were not Christians. Christianity had taken root under Roman rule, but the new arrivals brought their own beliefs, so the country needed converting afresh. This happened through two separate missionary movements arriving from different directions.

Missionaries from Ireland spread the faith in the north of Britain. The most celebrated of these were St Patrick, who became the patron saint of Ireland, and St Columba, who founded a monastery on the island of Iona, off the Scottish coast. Meanwhile, St Augustine led a mission sent from Rome that spread Christianity in the south. St Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury, a role his mission established as the senior post in the English Church.

Between them, these two missions meant that by the later Anglo-Saxon period, Christianity had spread across most of Britain, reshaping religious life for centuries to come.

The Vikings arrive to raid

The Vikings came from Denmark and Norway. They first raided the coasts of Britain to plunder monasteries and towns, seizing goods and taking captives as slaves, rather than settling straight away.

These early raids struck fear across Anglo-Saxon Britain because monasteries were often wealthy but poorly defended, making them easy targets for fast, seaborne attackers.

From raiders to settlers

Raiding gradually gave way to settlement. Vikings began forming their own communities in the east of England and in parts of Scotland, rather than simply attacking and leaving.

The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England eventually united against this threat under King Alfred the Great, who defeated the Vikings and checked their advance. Even so, many Viking settlers remained, particularly in the east and north of England, in a region that became known as the Danelaw. Place names such as Grimsby and Scunthorpe still show their Scandinavian origins today. Viking settlers mixed with local Anglo-Saxon communities, and many gradually converted to Christianity.

Viking influence eventually reached the throne itself. Anglo-Saxon kings generally continued to rule what is now England, but there was a period of Danish kingship, beginning with Cnut, also known as Canute. Further north, the same Viking threat pushed the peoples of what is now Scotland to unite under a single king, Kenneth MacAlpin, and it was from this period that the name Scotland came into use.

The Danelaw

The Vikings came from Denmark and Norway. They first raided Britain's coasts in AD 789, taking goods and slaves, then began to settle permanently in the east of England and Scotland.

After years of warfare between the Vikings and the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, a boundary was agreed that divided England into two zones. In the area under Viking control, known as the Danelaw, Scandinavian law and custom prevailed over Anglo-Saxon law. This territory covered much of the east and north of England, and many place names there, including Grimsby and Scunthorpe, come from the Viking languages spoken by the settlers. The Viking settlers gradually mixed with local communities and some converted to Christianity.

Alfred the Great

Alfred became king of Wessex, the last independent Anglo-Saxon kingdom, in 871, at a time when Viking armies had already overrun the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. After early defeats, he won a decisive victory over the Vikings and united the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England under his rule. This is why he became known as Alfred the Great, the only English monarch to hold that title.

Following his victory, Alfred agreed a treaty with the Viking leader that fixed the boundary of the Danelaw, allowing Wessex and the reunited Anglo-Saxon territories to remain independent of Viking control. As well as being a military leader, Alfred is remembered for reorganising the defence of his kingdom, promoting education and law, and consolidating the identity of the Anglo-Saxons as a single people.

Danish monarchs

Anglo-Saxon kings continued to rule what is now England, with one notable exception: a short period when Danish kings sat on the English throne. The first and most important of these was Cnut, also known as Canute.

Cnut became king of England in 1016, having led a Danish invasion force. He went on to inherit the throne of Denmark and, for part of his reign, controlled Norway as well, making him ruler of a powerful northern realm alongside England. His reign brought a period of stability, though Danish rule of England did not last: within a few years of his death in 1035, Anglo-Saxon kings had returned to the throne.

Cnut: the Danish king of England

After a period of Viking raiding and settlement, Anglo-Saxon kings continued to rule what is now England, with one short exception: a spell of Danish kings. The first of these was Cnut, also called Canute. He became king of England in 1016, and he also ruled Denmark and, from 1028, Norway, so for a time England formed part of a wider Scandinavian realm known as the North Sea Empire.

Cnut is remembered in English legend for supposedly commanding the tide to turn back, a story used to show that even a powerful king could not command nature. He promoted Christianity within his territories and is generally regarded as an effective ruler who brought a period of stability to England.

How England became one kingdom

Before unification, Britain contained several separate Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, mostly in what is now England. The Vikings, who came from Denmark and Norway, began raiding Britain from AD 789 and later settled in the east of England and Scotland.

Facing this shared Viking threat, the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England united under King Alfred the Great, who defeated the Vikings. Many Viking settlers remained, particularly in the east and north of England, in the area known as the Danelaw, where place names such as Grimsby and Scunthorpe still show their Scandinavian origins. Over time these Viking settlers mixed with local Anglo-Saxon communities and many converted to Christianity, gradually forming a single English kingdom under Anglo-Saxon rule, briefly interrupted by Danish kings such as Cnut.

Edward the Confessor and the succession crisis of 1066

Edward the Confessor became king of England in 1042, restoring the House of Wessex after the period of Danish rule that had begun with Cnut. He was known for his piety, which earned him the name Confessor, and he was later made a saint. During his reign he began the building of Westminster Abbey, which was completed shortly before his death and has since been the setting for coronations and royal burials.

Edward died in January 1066 without a son to succeed him, and this created a serious succession crisis. His death is the direct link to the most famous date in English history: several men, including Harold Godwinson and William, Duke of Normandy, believed they had a claim to the throne. Harold was crowned king but was killed later that year at the Battle of Hastings, when William of Normandy invaded and became king as William the Conqueror. The uncertainty left by Edward's death is therefore seen as a major contributing cause of the Norman Conquest.

The succession crisis of 1066

Edward the Confessor died in January 1066 leaving no children, so there was no obvious heir to the English throne. This left several rival claimants ready to press their case, and 1066 became the year in which the crisis was settled by force rather than agreement.

The Witan chose Harold Godwinson, the leading English nobleman, as king, and he was crowned within a day of Edward's death. His claim was challenged almost immediately from two directions. Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, invaded the north of England, only to be defeated and killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in September 1066. Within weeks, William, Duke of Normandy, landed in the south, claiming that Edward had earlier promised him the throne. Harold's exhausted army, having just marched the length of the country, met William's forces at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. Harold was killed, and William's victory decided the crisis in his favour, ending Anglo-Saxon rule and beginning the Norman period of English history.

Harold Godwinson: the last Anglo-Saxon king

Harold Godwinson was the powerful Earl of Wessex and brother-in-law to Edward the Confessor. When Edward died in January 1066 without a child to succeed him, the Witan, the council of leading nobles, chose Harold as the new king. He was crowned on 6 January 1066, the day of Edward's funeral.

Harold's reign lasted only ten months. He first had to defend the north of England against an invasion by the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada, who was supported by Harold's own estranged brother, Tostig. Harold marched his army north and won a hard-fought victory at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066, in which both Hardrada and Tostig were killed. Barely had he won this battle when he learned that William, Duke of Normandy, had landed his invasion force on the south coast at Pevensey. Harold marched his weary army south to meet this new threat, and the two forces met at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. Harold was killed in the fighting, bringing his brief reign, and the era of Anglo-Saxon kingship, to an end.

William of Normandy, the Conqueror

William, Duke of Normandy, was a distant relative of Edward the Confessor and believed he had been promised the English throne. He built an invasion fleet and, in autumn 1066, crossed the Channel to press his claim by force.

In October 1066 William's army defeated Harold's forces at the Battle of Hastings, where Harold was killed. William was crowned king and became known as William the Conqueror. His victory marked the last successful foreign invasion of England and brought sweeping change to government and society. Norman French, the language of the new ruling class, shaped the development of English as it is spoken today. William initially extended Norman control into Wales, though the Welsh gradually regained territory, and Norman forces clashed with the Scots along the border without conquering Scotland itself. To record the wealth of his new kingdom, William commissioned a survey of towns, villages, landholders and livestock across England, known as the Domesday Book, which still survives and offers a detailed picture of English society shortly after the Conquest.

The Battle of Hastings

In 1066, William, the Duke of Normandy, invaded England to claim the throne. His forces met the army of Harold, the Saxon king of England, at Hastings on the south coast. William's Norman army defeated Harold's forces in a hard-fought battle.

William's victory

William's triumph at Hastings made him king of England, and he became known as William the Conqueror. The Norman Conquest was the last successful foreign invasion of England, and it brought lasting changes to government and society. Norman French, the language of the new ruling class, went on to shape the development of the English language as it is spoken today.

William wanted a clear record of his new kingdom. He sent officials across England to compile detailed lists of towns, villages, landowners, residents and livestock. This survey became known as the Domesday Book. It still survives and offers a detailed picture of English society shortly after the Conquest.

1066: William the Conqueror and the last successful invasion

In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, launched an invasion of England and defeated King Harold, the Saxon king, at the Battle of Hastings. Harold was killed in the fighting, and William was crowned king, becoming known as William the Conqueror. The Battle of Hastings is commemorated in the Bayeux Tapestry, a great piece of embroidery that survives in France today.

The Norman Conquest is remembered as the last successful foreign invasion of England, and it brought sweeping change to government and society. Norman French, the language of the new ruling class, shaped the development of English as it is spoken today. The Normans also conquered Wales at first, though the Welsh gradually reclaimed territory, while fighting on the border with Scotland gained the Normans some land but never led to a full invasion of the country.

William wanted a clear record of his new kingdom's wealth and population. He sent officials across England to draw up detailed lists of towns and villages, noting who lived there, who owned the land, and what animals they kept. The resulting survey became known as the Domesday Book. It still exists today and offers historians a detailed picture of English society shortly after the Conquest.

Castles: securing a conquered country

William and his followers needed a fast way to control a hostile and much larger population. Their solution was the motte and bailey castle: an earth mound, the motte, topped with a wooden or later stone tower called a keep, next to a fenced enclosure called the bailey. Built from earth and timber, these structures could be raised in days rather than years, which suited an army that needed to fortify newly seized territory quickly.

Norman lords across England and Wales built large numbers of these castles in the decades after 1066, using them as garrisons, residences and centres of local administration. Over time, many were rebuilt in stone as Norman rule became more settled, producing some of the fortresses that still stand today, including the Tower of London and Windsor Castle. The rapid spread of castles across the landscape was one of the clearest physical signs that a new ruling class had taken charge of the country.

The feudal system: land in exchange for loyalty and labour

The Normans governed England through a system of land ownership known as feudalism. The king granted land to his lords in return for military support, and those landowners had to supply set numbers of men to serve in the army when required. This created a chain of obligation running down from the crown through the nobility.

Beneath the lords stood the peasants. A few held their own land, but most were serfs: they worked a small plot on their lord's land to grow food for themselves, and in exchange they had to labour for their lord and were not free to move away. A similar system took root in southern Scotland, while in the north of Scotland and in Ireland land continued to be held by clans, the great family groupings, rather than through Norman-style feudal ties.

The Domesday Book

After the Norman Conquest, King William wanted a full record of his new kingdom. He sent officials all over England to draw up lists of every town and village. His surveyors recorded who lived in each place, who owned the land and what animals and property they held.

This survey became known as the Domesday Book. It still survives today and gives historians a detailed picture of English society shortly after the Norman Conquest.