The Stuarts, Civil War and constitutional monarchy

James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England

Elizabeth I never married and left no children to inherit her throne. When she died in 1603, her heir was her cousin James VI of Scotland, who had ruled there since infancy. He crossed the border to become King James I of England, Wales and Ireland, while continuing to reign in Scotland as James VI. Crucially, Scotland remained a separate country with its own parliament and laws: the two kingdoms shared a monarch but were not yet a single state.

James and his son Charles I proved less adept at handling Parliament than Elizabeth had been. Both believed in the Divine Right of Kings, the idea that a monarch's authority came directly from God and did not depend on Parliament's consent. This conviction that a king should be able to act without seeking Parliament's approval set the stage for the confrontations that followed in Charles I's reign.

The Union of the Crowns

James's accession in 1603 is known as the Union of the Crowns. It joined England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland under one monarch for the first time, but it was a personal union rather than a political one. Each kingdom kept its own parliament, its own laws and its own institutions, and this arrangement lasted until the Acts of Union of 1707 formally merged the parliaments of England and Scotland into a single Parliament of Great Britain.

James himself wanted to go further. Within weeks of arriving in London he issued a proclamation aiming towards a full union of England and Scotland, and a commission of English and Scottish MPs was set up in October 1604 to consider how a perfect union might be created. The plan met resistance in both parliaments, so James had to be content with symbolic reforms and gestures rather than full political union. In October 1604 he took the style of King of Great Britain, and in 1606 he ordered the creation of a British flag combining the crosses of St George and St Andrew, the ancestor of the Union Flag.

The King James Bible

One lasting achievement of James's reign was a new translation of the Bible into English, produced by teams of scholars working at Westminster, Oxford and Cambridge. It is known as the King James Version or the Authorised Version. It was not the first English Bible, but it became the version used in most Protestant churches in England for centuries afterwards and remains in use today.

The translation was commissioned in 1604 and published in 1611. It had a lasting effect on the English language: many phrases from it are still in everyday use, and its measured, formal style influenced English prose long after the seventeenth century.

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605

James I became king of England, Wales and Ireland in 1603, while remaining James VI of a separate Scotland. His reign began with tension between the Protestant government and England's Catholic minority, who hoped for greater tolerance under the new king but were largely disappointed. A group of English Catholics decided to act against the Crown directly.

Led by Robert Catesby, the conspirators planned to blow up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament, killing the king and members of both Houses in one explosion, as a prelude to installing a Catholic head of state. They rented a cellar beneath the House of Lords and filled it with barrels of gunpowder, with the detonation planned for 5 November 1605, the day set for the State Opening.

The plot was uncovered after an anonymous letter warned a Catholic peer, Lord Monteagle, not to attend Parliament that day. Officials searched the cellars in the early hours of 5 November and discovered barrels of gunpowder along with the man guarding them, who gave a false name. The conspirators were killed or captured within days, and the survivors were tried for high treason and executed.

Parliament marked the plot's failure the following year by making 5 November a day of thanksgiving. This has grown into the enduring British tradition of Bonfire Night, when people light bonfires, let off fireworks and burn effigies. A ceremonial search of the cellars beneath the Palace of Westminster still takes place before each State Opening of Parliament, a custom kept alive from the events of 1605.

Guy Fawkes

Guy Fawkes was the conspirator caught guarding the gunpowder and is now the best-known name associated with the plot. He was born in York in 1570, the son of a church lawyer, and later converted to Catholicism and fought as a soldier for Catholic Spain in the Netherlands.

In the early hours of 5 November 1605, guards searching the cellars beneath the House of Lords found Fawkes with a fuse, matches and dozens of barrels of gunpowder. He had been using the false name John Johnson and was taken into custody, then held and questioned at the Tower of London. He was tried for high treason alongside the surviving conspirators and executed in January 1606.

Fawkes's capture gave the plot its lasting popular name and his effigy has become the traditional focus of Bonfire Night, when models of Fawkes are burned on bonfires across Britain every 5 November.

Charles I and the road to civil war

Charles I inherited the thrones of England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland from his father, James I. Like James, he believed in the Divine Right of Kings, the idea that a monarch's authority came directly from God and did not require Parliament's consent. Charles tried to rule on this basis, and when Parliament would not support his religious and foreign policies, he ruled without it for eleven years, raising money by other means.

Trouble began when Charles tried to impose a new Prayer Book on the Presbyterian Church in Scotland, provoking serious unrest and the formation of a Scottish army. Unable to fund his own forces without Parliament's help, Charles recalled Parliament in 1640. Many members were Puritans who distrusted the king's religious reforms, and they refused to grant him money even after the Scots invaded England.

Tension deepened when a rebellion broke out in Ireland, and Parliament seized the moment to demand control of the English army, a move that would have shifted major power from the Crown to Parliament. Charles responded by entering the House of Commons himself to arrest five parliamentary leaders. They had been warned and were not there, and no monarch has entered the Commons since. War between king and Parliament followed in 1642, dividing the country into Royalist Cavaliers and Parliamentarian Roundheads.

Parliament's forces defeated the king's army at Marston Moor and Naseby, and by 1646 the war was effectively won. Charles remained a prisoner and refused to compromise with Parliament, and in 1649 he was executed. England then declared itself a republic known as the Commonwealth, ending the monarchy for the only period in its history, before the eventual restoration of the Crown under Charles's son in 1660.

Crown against Parliament

James I and his son Charles I believed in the Divine Right of Kings: the idea that a monarch was appointed directly by God and should not have to seek Parliament's approval to rule. When Charles I inherited the thrones of England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland, he tried to govern on this principle. When Parliament would not agree with his religious and foreign policies, he chose to rule without it altogether, and for eleven years he found ways to raise money without Parliament's consent.

Trouble began when Charles tried to impose a revised Prayer Book on the Presbyterian Church in Scotland, provoking serious unrest and the formation of a Scottish army. Unable to fund his own forces, Charles recalled Parliament in 1640 to ask for money. Many MPs were Puritans who distrusted his religious reforms, and Parliament refused funds even after the Scottish army invaded England.

A rebellion in Ireland gave Parliament its opening: it demanded control of the English army, a move that would have shifted decisive power from king to Parliament. Charles responded by entering the House of Commons himself to arrest five parliamentary leaders, but they had been warned and had already fled. No monarch has entered the Commons chamber since. Civil war became unavoidable and broke out in 1642.

The king's forces lost the key battles of Marston Moor and Naseby, and by 1646 Parliament had won. Charles was held prisoner and refused to compromise, so in 1649 he was executed. England then declared itself a republic, the Commonwealth, without a monarch. Oliver Cromwell, one of the army's generals, went on to suppress continuing revolts in Ireland and defeated a Scottish army supporting Charles II at Dunbar and Worcester, bringing Scotland under Parliament's control too. Cromwell became Lord Protector until his death in 1658; his son Richard could not hold the army or government together, and in 1660 Parliament invited Charles II back from exile, restoring the monarchy.

The Cavaliers: supporters of the king

When civil war began in 1642, the country split into two sides. Those who supported King Charles I were known as the Cavaliers.

The Roundheads: supporters of Parliament

Those who backed Parliament against the king were known as the Roundheads. Many Roundheads were Puritans, Protestants who wanted strict and simple religious doctrine and worship, and they opposed the king's attempts to add more ceremony to Church of England worship. The Roundheads' forces, eventually led with great effect by Oliver Cromwell, defeated the Cavaliers, winning the civil war by 1646 and paving the way for the execution of Charles I and the creation of the Commonwealth.

Crown against Parliament: the English Civil War

James I and his son Charles I believed in the Divine Right of Kings, the idea that a monarch's authority came directly from God and did not need Parliament's approval. Charles I tried to rule on this basis. When Parliament would not agree with his religious and foreign policies, he governed for eleven years without calling it at all, raising money by other means until trouble in Scotland forced him to recall Parliament.

Charles wanted more ceremony in Church of England worship and introduced a revised Prayer Book. He tried to impose this on the Presbyterian Church in Scotland, causing serious unrest and the formation of a Scottish army. Unable to fund his own forces without Parliament's help, Charles recalled Parliament in 1640, but many MPs were Puritans who disliked his religious reforms and refused to grant him money, even after the Scottish army invaded England.

A rebellion in Ireland, driven by Catholic fears of growing Puritan power, gave Parliament the opportunity to demand control of the English army, which would have shifted major power from king to Parliament. Charles responded by entering the House of Commons to arrest five parliamentary leaders, but they had been warned and had already left. No monarch has entered the Commons since. War between king and Parliament became unavoidable and broke out in 1642, dividing the country into Cavaliers, who supported the king, and Roundheads, who supported Parliament.

Oliver Cromwell and the English Republic

The king's army was defeated at the Battles of Marston Moor and Naseby, and by 1646 Parliament had won the war. With Charles held prisoner and unwilling to reach any settlement, England declared itself a republic, known as the Commonwealth, with no monarch. For a time it was unclear how the country would be governed, and the army held real control.

Oliver Cromwell, one of the army's generals, was sent to Ireland to put down a continuing revolt and defeat a remaining Royalist army. He established parliamentary authority with such severity that he remains a controversial figure in Ireland today. The Scots, who had not agreed to the king's execution, proclaimed Charles II king of Scotland and he led a Scottish army into England, but Cromwell defeated it at the Battles of Dunbar and Worcester. Charles II escaped, famously hiding in an oak tree at one point, and fled to Europe, leaving Parliament in control of Scotland as well as England and Wales.

After his Irish campaign and his victory at Worcester, Cromwell was recognised as leader of the new republic and took the title Lord Protector, ruling until his death in 1658. His son Richard succeeded him but could not control the army or the government. Although Britain had been a republic for eleven years, the absence of a clear leader after Cromwell's death left many people wanting stability, and talk began of the need for a king again, leading to the Restoration of Charles II in 1660.

The execution of Charles I

Charles I remained unwilling to reach any agreement with Parliament even after his defeat and imprisonment. In 1649 he was executed, ending his reign and, for the time being, the English monarchy itself. England then declared itself a republic called the Commonwealth.

England becomes a republic: the Commonwealth

After years of civil war, Parliament's forces defeated the king's army at the Battles of Marston Moor and Naseby, and by 1646 it was clear that Parliament had won. Charles I was held prisoner but refused to reach any settlement with Parliament, and in 1649 he was executed.

England then declared itself a republic, known as the Commonwealth, with no monarch at its head. Exactly how the country should be governed was not immediately clear, and for a time the army held real control. One of its generals, Oliver Cromwell, was sent to Ireland, where a revolt that had begun in 1641 was still continuing alongside a Royalist army. Cromwell established the authority of the English Parliament there, but did so with such violence that he remains a controversial figure in Ireland to this day.

Meanwhile Scotland had not agreed to the king's execution and declared Charles I's son, Charles II, to be king. Charles II was crowned king of Scotland and led a Scottish army into England, but Cromwell defeated this force at the Battles of Dunbar and Worcester. Charles II escaped, famously hiding in an oak tree at one point, before fleeing to Europe. Parliament now controlled Scotland as well as England and Wales, and the Commonwealth extended across all three.

Cromwell as Lord Protector

Oliver Cromwell emerged as the leader of the new republic after his campaigns in Ireland and his victory over Charles II at Worcester. He took the title of Lord Protector, formally becoming head of state in December 1653, and ruled until his death in 1658.

When Cromwell died, his son Richard became Lord Protector in his place, but Richard could not control either the army or the government. Britain had by then been a republic for eleven years, but without Oliver Cromwell there was no clear leader or system of government. Many people wanted stability, and talk turned increasingly to the idea of restoring a king.

Charles II and the Restoration

In May 1660, Parliament invited Charles II to return from exile in the Netherlands, and he was crowned King Charles II of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. He made clear that he had no wish to go into exile again, and understood that he would sometimes need to reach agreement with Parliament rather than rule entirely as he pleased. Parliament generally supported his policies, and the Church of England was restored as the official Church, with both Roman Catholics and Puritans kept out of power.

Charles II's reign saw two great disasters strike London. In 1665, a major outbreak of plague killed thousands of people, especially in poorer areas. The following year, in September 1666, a great fire tore through the city over several days, destroying much of it including old St Paul's Cathedral and dozens of parish churches. London was rebuilt with a new St Paul's, designed by the architect Sir Christopher Wren. Samuel Pepys recorded these events in a diary that was later published and is still read today.

In 1679, the Habeas Corpus Act became law, a landmark piece of legislation that remains relevant now. Habeas corpus is Latin for 'you must present the person in court', and the Act guaranteed that no one could be held prisoner unlawfully, giving every prisoner the right to a court hearing.

Charles II took a keen interest in science, and during his reign the Royal Society was founded to promote what was called natural knowledge. It is the oldest surviving scientific society in the world. Early members included Sir Edmund Halley, who successfully predicted the return of the comet now named after him, and Sir Isaac Newton, the Lincolnshire-born scientist whose work on gravity and light became central to modern science.

Charles II had no legitimate children, so when he died in 1685 the throne passed to his brother James, a Roman Catholic, who became James II of England, Wales and Ireland and James VII of Scotland.

The Great Plague of 1665

During Charles II's reign, in 1665, London suffered a major outbreak of bubonic plague. Thousands of people died, especially in poorer and more crowded areas of the city. Modern estimates suggest the plague killed around 100,000 Londoners, roughly a fifth of the capital's population, though official Bills of Mortality recorded fewer deaths because record-keeping at the time was imperfect. The diarist Samuel Pepys wrote about these events in a diary that was later published and is still read today.

The Great Fire of London

The year after the plague, in 1666, a great fire broke out in London and destroyed much of the city, including many churches and St Paul's Cathedral. The fire began in a baker's shop on Pudding Lane and burned for several days, ultimately destroying roughly two-thirds of the City of London.

London was rebuilt in the years that followed, and a new St Paul's Cathedral was designed by the architect Sir Christopher Wren. Wren had already been advising on repairs to the old, decaying cathedral before the fire, and after the disaster he went on to design dozens of new churches for the city as well as the cathedral itself, which took years to complete. Samuel Pepys's diary also records eyewitness details of the fire, and it remains a widely read historical source today.

Samuel Pepys and his diary

Samuel Pepys was a naval administrator and Member of Parliament who rose to become an influential figure in Restoration government. He is remembered today chiefly for the diary he kept, which recorded the great public events of his time alongside the details of his own daily life.

During Charles II's reign, London suffered two great disasters within a year of each other. In 1665 an outbreak of plague killed thousands of people, especially in poorer areas, and the following year a great fire destroyed much of the city, including old St Paul's Cathedral and many churches. Samuel Pepys wrote about these events in a diary which was later published and is still read today. His firsthand account of the plague and the Great Fire of London remains one of the most valuable records of that period of English history.

The Royal Society

Charles II took a personal interest in science, and it was during his reign that a group of thinkers meeting in London formed a new scientific body. Charles II was interested in science, and during his reign the Royal Society was formed to promote 'natural knowledge'. It is the oldest surviving scientific society in the world. The society's first meeting took place in 1660, and Charles II granted it a royal charter in 1662, formally establishing it as The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge.

Among its early members were Sir Edmund Halley, who successfully predicted the return of the comet now called Halley's Comet, and Sir Isaac Newton. Samuel Pepys himself later served as the society's president. The Royal Society still exists today as the United Kingdom's national academy of science, and it continues to promote scientific research and give scientific advice.

James II and the road to the Glorious Revolution

Charles II died in 1685 leaving no legitimate children, so the throne passed to his brother. Charles II had no legitimate children. He died in 1685 and his brother, James, who was a Roman Catholic, became King James II in England, Wales and Ireland and King James VII of Scotland. This made him the first openly Catholic monarch since the Reformation, in a country where the Church of England had been the established church for over a century.

James quickly caused alarm among his Protestant subjects. James favoured Roman Catholics and allowed them to be army officers, which an Act of Parliament had forbidden. He did not seek to reach agreements with Parliament and arrested some of the bishops of the Church of England. People in England worried that James wanted to make England a Catholic country once more. For a time, this fear was tempered by the knowledge that James's two daughters, next in line to the throne, were firmly Protestant. His heirs were his two daughters, who were both firmly Protestant, and people thought that this meant there would soon be a Protestant monarch again. Then, James's wife had a son, and suddenly it seemed likely that the next monarch would not be a Protestant after all.

This prospect of a Catholic dynasty pushed leading Protestants to act. James II's elder daughter, Mary, was married to her cousin William of Orange, the Protestant ruler of the Netherlands. In 1688, important Protestants in England asked William to invade England and proclaim himself king. William's invasion met no opposition. When William reached England, there was no resistance. James fled to France and William took over the throne, becoming William III in England, Wales and Ireland, and William II of Scotland. William ruled jointly with Mary.

Because the change of monarch happened without a battle on English soil, it became known as the Glorious Revolution. This event was later called the 'Glorious Revolution' because there was no fighting in England and because it guaranteed the power of Parliament, ending the threat of a monarch ruling on his or her own as he or she wished. James did not give up his claim without a fight elsewhere. James II wanted to regain the throne and invaded Ireland with the help of a French army. William defeated James II at the Battle of the Boyne in Ireland in 1690, an event which is still celebrated by some in Northern Ireland today. William re-conquered Ireland and James fled back to France. Supporters of the exiled James, particularly strong in Scotland, became known as Jacobites, and their cause would resurface in rebellions during the following century.

The Glorious Revolution of 1688

Charles II died in 1685 without a legitimate child, so his brother James, a Roman Catholic, became King James II of England, Wales and Ireland and King James VII of Scotland. James favoured Roman Catholics, made them army officers despite a law forbidding this, and arrested bishops of the Church of England who opposed him. Many people feared he wanted to restore Catholicism as the national religion. His two daughters were firmly Protestant, so people expected a Protestant succession to follow him, until his wife gave birth to a son, raising the prospect of a Catholic dynasty.

James's elder daughter, Mary, was married to her cousin William of Orange, the Protestant ruler of the Netherlands. In 1688, leading Protestants in England invited William to invade and take the throne. When William landed, James found no support and fled to France; William took the crown with no resistance in England. This bloodless transfer became known as the Glorious Revolution, because it avoided fighting in England and secured the supremacy of Parliament over the Crown, ending any prospect of a monarch ruling entirely as he or she pleased.

James refused to accept the loss of his throne and invaded Ireland with French military support. William defeated him at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, an event still commemorated by some in Northern Ireland today. William then reconquered Ireland, James fled back to France for good, and harsh new restrictions were placed on the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland, barring Irish Catholics from taking part in government.

There was also support for James in Scotland. An armed rising in his favour was defeated at Killiecrankie, and all Scottish clans were then required to swear an oath accepting William as king. The MacDonalds of Glencoe were late in swearing and were massacred as a result, an episode that left some Scots distrustful of the new regime. Supporters who continued to believe James was the rightful king, some joining him in exile in France and others acting as secret sympathisers at home, became known as Jacobites.

William and Mary as joint monarchs

William and Mary ruled jointly rather than as king and consort, an unusual arrangement in English history. William became William III of England, Wales and Ireland and William II of Scotland, while Mary reigned as Mary II. This joint rule reflected the terms on which Parliament had brought them to the throne rather than a straightforward hereditary succession.

The Bill of Rights

The Glorious Revolution's central achievement was to guarantee the power of Parliament over the Crown, and this was set out in law through the Bill of Rights. Parliament had presented William and Mary with a Declaration of Rights before their accession, and this was passed as an Act of Parliament, the Bill of Rights, in December 1689. The rights affirmed in the Declaration took statutory effect in December 1689 when the Convention, with William and Mary's royal assent, passed the Declaration as an Act of Parliament, now known as the Bill of Rights, and it stands as one of the landmark documents in the development of civil liberties in England.

The Bill of Rights limited royal power in several lasting ways. It firmly established the principles of frequent parliaments, free elections and freedom of speech within Parliament, known today as Parliamentary Privilege, and it also included no right of taxation without Parliament's agreement. Parliament had offered the Crown to William and Mary on the condition that they accept a Bill of Rights designed to prevent monarchs from changing laws, raising taxes or maintaining an army without Parliament's consent. It also barred Roman Catholics, and anyone married to a Roman Catholic, from inheriting the throne, a rule that shaped the royal succession for centuries afterwards.

The Bill of Rights remains part of the constitution of the United Kingdom today, alongside other historic documents such as Magna Carta and the Human Rights Act. It is generally seen as marking the point at which England became a constitutional monarchy: a system in which the monarch reigns as head of state but must govern within the law and through Parliament, rather than by unrestrained personal authority.

Habeas corpus: a right that still matters

Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679, during the reign of Charles II. Habeas corpus is Latin for 'you must present the person in court', and the Act guaranteed that no one could be held prisoner unlawfully. Every prisoner gained the right to a court hearing, a protection that remains part of English law today.

How the Crown came to share power with Parliament

The idea of constitutional monarchy, in which the monarch reigns but Parliament holds the real power to make laws and raise taxes, grew out of the conflicts between Crown and Parliament in the seventeenth century. James I and his son Charles I both believed in the Divine Right of Kings, the idea that the king was directly appointed by God to rule, and thought they should be able to act without Parliament's approval. Charles I tried to rule this way, going without Parliament for eleven years, but eventually needed its help to raise money and was forced to recall it.

Disputes over money, religion and power led to civil war in 1642 between the king's Cavaliers and Parliament's Roundheads. Parliament's forces won, and Charles I was executed in 1649. England became a republic called the Commonwealth, the only period in its history without a monarch, led for a time by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector. After Cromwell's death, the lack of stable leadership led Parliament to invite Charles II back from exile in 1660, an event known as the Restoration. Charles II accepted that he would sometimes need to reach agreement with Parliament rather than rule alone.

The settlement was completed by the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Charles II's brother, James II, was Catholic and had alarmed Protestants in England, especially once his son was born, raising the prospect of a Catholic succession. Protestant leaders invited James's daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange, to take the throne. William landed in England without resistance, James fled to France, and William and Mary ruled jointly. The change was called the Glorious Revolution because it happened without fighting in England and because it guaranteed the power of Parliament, ending any threat of a monarch ruling alone as he or she wished. From this point, Britain's monarchy became constitutional in practice: the Crown reigns, but Parliament governs.

Uniting the kingdoms: 1707 and 1800

England and Scotland had shared the same monarch since 1603, when James VI of Scotland also became James I of England, but they remained separate countries with separate parliaments. In 1707, the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland each passed an Act of Union, and these Acts of Union joined the two kingdoms into a single Kingdom of Great Britain with one parliament, based at Westminster.

Nearly a century later, the Acts of Union 1800 joined the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland. The new state, which came into being on 1 January 1801, was called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and Ireland's own parliament in Dublin was abolished as Irish members joined Westminster instead.

The creation of Great Britain

By the late 1600s, England, Wales and Scotland had shared a monarch since 1603, but they remained separate countries with separate parliaments. Scotland had suffered a costly and unsuccessful attempt to found a colony at Darien in Panama, which left its economy in difficulty, while England wanted to remove any risk that Scotland might choose a different monarch or ally with England's enemies. These pressures brought the two parliaments to negotiate a full union.

In 1707, the Act of Union joined the Parliaments of England and Scotland to create a single kingdom called Great Britain, with one parliament sitting in Westminster. Scotland kept its own legal system, its own education system and its Presbyterian Church, but it gave up its separate parliament in exchange for free trade with England and its colonies. The new united Parliament met for the first time in October 1707.

This union of 1707 must be kept distinct from later events: it created Great Britain from England, Wales and Scotland, but Ireland remained a separate kingdom under the same crown until it joined in 1801, when the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was formed.

The Hanoverian succession

William and Mary were succeeded by Mary's sister, Queen Anne, but none of Anne's children survived her. This raised a serious problem, because under the rules of strict hereditary descent the throne would have passed to a Catholic relative, and Parliament was determined to keep the crown Protestant.

Parliament had already addressed this danger in the Act of Settlement of 1701, which stated that no Roman Catholic, and no one married to a Roman Catholic, could inherit the throne. The Act named Sophia, Electress of Hanover, a Protestant granddaughter of James I, as heir should William and Anne die without surviving children, even though more than fifty Catholic relatives had a stronger hereditary claim.

Sophia died a few weeks before Queen Anne in 1714, so the crown passed to Sophia's son, George, Elector of Hanover, who became King George I. He was Anne's nearest Protestant relative, and Parliament's choice of him showed clearly that the succession to the throne was now a matter for Parliament to settle rather than a right that passed automatically by blood. George I spoke little English and continued to rule his German territory of Hanover alongside his new kingdom, relying heavily on his ministers to manage domestic politics, a pattern that encouraged the growth of cabinet government and the office of Prime Minister under his ministers, including Robert Walpole.

The Jacobite rebellions

Supporters of the exiled Stuart line, particularly James II and his descendants, were known as Jacobites. Many continued to believe that James II, and later his son, was the rightful king, and this feeling remained especially strong in parts of Scotland even after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 had installed William and Mary.

When George I became king in 1714, James Edward Stuart, the son of James II and known as the Old Pretender, challenged his right to the throne. In 1715, a rising of Scottish clans in his support led him to land in Scotland, but the rebellion was unsuccessful and his supporters were defeated, forcing him to withdraw. A further, larger Jacobite rising took place in 1745 under James Edward's son, Charles Edward Stuart, known as the Young Pretender or Bonnie Prince Charlie. His army advanced into England before being turned back, and it was finally and decisively defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, the last battle fought on British soil. The defeat effectively ended serious Jacobite hopes of restoring the Stuart line and was followed by harsh measures against the Highland clan system in Scotland.

Bonnie Prince Charlie and the Jacobite cause

The Jacobites were supporters of the exiled Stuart king James II, who had been deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. They took their name from Jacobus, the Latin form of James, and believed that James and his descendants remained the rightful monarchs. Several Jacobite risings tried to restore the family to the throne over the following decades. The best remembered is the rising of 1745, led by Charles Edward Stuart, grandson of James II and better known as Bonnie Prince Charlie.

Charles landed in Scotland in the summer of 1745 and gathered support among the Highland clans. His forces took Edinburgh and won a victory at Prestonpans before marching south into England. They reached Derby, within striking distance of London, but with little support gathering in England and no sign of the French assistance they had hoped for, the Jacobite army turned back and retreated towards Scotland. By the spring of 1746 the campaign had reached its final stage in the Highlands near Inverness.

The Battle of Culloden

The Battle of Culloden was fought on 16 April 1746 near Inverness. The forces of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, attempting to reclaim the throne for his family, met a British army led by the Duke of Cumberland, son of the Hanoverian King George II. The government army was well supplied and considerably stronger, while the Jacobite forces were tired, hungry and short of supplies after months of campaigning.

The fighting was brief but brutal. Although a short battle by European standards, it was an exceptionally bloody one that changed life in the Highlands forever, and in less than an hour around 1,600 men were slain, about 1,500 of them Jacobites. The Jacobites were decisively defeated, and Charles fled into hiding before eventually escaping to France; he never attempted to take the throne again.

Culloden holds a distinct place in British history: Culloden was the last pitched battle on British soil. A pitched battle is one where both sides agree in advance on the time and place of the fighting, as opposed to a skirmish or raid. In the aftermath, the government moved to break the power of the clan system in the Highlands, and the Jacobite cause as a serious threat to the throne came to an end.